Divided Kingdom: How Immigration Became the United Kingdom’s Most Salient Issue

“It almost passes belief that at this moment 20 or 30 additional immigrant children are arriving from overseas in Wolverhampton alone every week - and that means 15 or 20 additional families a decade or two hence. Those whom the gods wish to destroy, they first make mad.”

Enoch Powell, “Rivers of Blood”, 1968 speech

A member of the Conservative Party, Member of Parliament Enoch Powell was appalled by the British government’s lack of controlling measures on immigration throughout the 1960s. The era was characterized by high rates of immigration from the Commonwealth and increasing racial tensions. Powell’s speech predicted negative consequences if these trends continued into the next decades. He called for a stop to further immigration, the encouragement of re-emigration, and for all citizens to be equal before the law. Powell also highlighted the weaknesses in how immigrants were treated once they entered society, which made Britons feel like “strangers in their own country.” Finally, he criticized the lack of integration, which was motivated by the high numbers of immigrants and employers not holding immigrants to the same standard as native Britons.

Powell’s speech was highly divisive, criticized by many as “racialist,” and he was ousted from his position in the Shadow Cabinet of Edward Heath. However, his words resonated with countless people who felt the current system was detrimental to both Britons and immigrants alike.

Many points Powell brought up have rung true in the decades since. Immigration has generally risen, peaking at 906,000 in 2023. Public discontent has likewise grown, and the most controversy surrounds asylum seekers. The two major political parties hold vastly different stances. The Labour Party tends to favor immigration, advocating a selective, contribution-based approach to benefit the UK economically. On the other hand, the Conservative Party is tougher on immigration and asylum and tends to scapegoat certain groups.  British citizens across the political spectrum are dissatisfied with current immigration policy, and many are turning to the new Reform UK party, a right-wing populist group that promises a crackdown.

There are multiple sources of tension regarding immigration today, but arguments on either side are often exaggerated by the media and politicians. This article will examine how immigration rose to the forefront of British politics.

History of Legislation

As various pieces of the British Empire became autonomous, the Commonwealth of Nations was established in 1926 to retain ties between the former empire and Britain. The United Kingdom’s modern immigration policy can be traced back to the British Nationality Act of 1948, which further encouraged unity by establishing the terms “British subject” and “Commonwealth citizen” as synonymous. The growing immigration after World War II helped alleviate labor shortages in the health, manufacturing, and transport sectors as the nation rebuilt. Most immigrants arrived from the Caribbean and South Asia, with economic and political turmoil in their homelands serving as push factors. However, immigration eventually surpassed emigration, and anti-immigration sentiment grew among the public. According to polls, it was not stirred by racial prejudice but by concerns that immigrants were occupying too many jobs. A poll conducted shortly after MP Powell’s inflammatory speech found that 93 percent of the public agreed that there should be a “drastic reduction on further immigration.” In 1962, the Commonwealth Immigrants Act was tightened by requiring an employment voucher for admission. An amendment in 1968 required direct family links – at least one parent or grandparent must be a citizen of the United Kingdom. However, interracial tensions persisted. Most notably, the 1958 Race Riots targeted Black residents in Nottingham. The government responded with the Race Relations Acts, which banned racial discrimination in public, including indirect actions in its definition.

The Immigration Act 1971 created conditions for those who are not patrials, meaning they lack the right of abode. Its provisions stand as the current law. 

“Except as otherwise provided by or under this Act, where a person is not patrial— (a) he shall not enter the United Kingdom unless given leave to do so in accordance with this Act; (b) he may be given leave to enter the United Kingdom (or, when already there, leave to remain in the United Kingdom) either for a limited or for an indefinite period; (c) if he is given a limited leave to enter or remain in the United Kingdom, it may be given subject to conditions restricting his employment or occupation in the United Kingdom, or requiring him to register with the police, or both.”

A major change to citizenship guidelines was implemented through the British Nationality Act of 1981. It replaced jus solis (birthright citizenship) with jus sanguinis, meaning one’s parent(s) must be a British citizen or settled in the United Kingdom.

Significant reforms were made to the immigration and asylum system under Tony Blair’s Labour government (1997-2007). Its overall goals were “managed migration” and “selective openness”, which sought to tighten asylum and encourage immigration for work and study, thereby benefiting the UK economically.

A new system for asylum seekers was established in the British National Immigration and Asylum Act of 1999. Part VI gives the Secretary of State the ability to support asylum seekers who appear “to be destitute or to be likely to become destitute within such period as may be prescribed.” A destitute person is identified if he “does not have adequate accommodation or any means of obtaining it (whether or not his other essential living needs are met); or he has adequate accommodation or the means of obtaining it, but cannot meet his other essential living needs.” The act also laid the groundwork for a dispersal system, which would prevent asylum seekers from being concentrated around London, as they had historically. The act reads, “The Secretary of State may by order designate as reception zones— (a) areas in England and Wales consisting of the areas of one or more local authorities; (b) areas in Scotland consisting of the areas of one or more local authorities; (c) Northern Ireland.” This laid the framework for the National Asylum Support System to be founded in 2000. It has since overseen the dispersal system and distribution of vouchers. The dispersal system’s goal is to prevent ethnic enclaves and encourage cultural integration, while allowing the government to limit costs by placing asylum seekers in areas with more affordable housing.

The Blair government also put forward policies to promote integration. The Nationality, Immigration and Asylum Act of 2002 introduced new requirements for naturalisation that replaced those in the British Nationality Act of 1981. Applicants must demonstrate sufficient knowledge of a “language” and “sufficient knowledge about life in the United Kingdom.” Potential citizens must make a citizenship oath and a pledge of allegiance at a citizenship ceremony.

At the heart of immigration policy is Indefinite Leave to Remain (ILR). This status allows visa holders to settle permanently in the UK and eventually apply for British citizenship. There are multiple paths to obtaining it, but all applicants are held to the requirements of fluency in English and passing the  “Life in the UK” test.

The European Union and Brexit

Following World War II, European nations reached various agreements to preserve peace and integrate economically. Most notably, the establishment of the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1957 created a common market for the free movement of goods, people, services, and capital. The 1992 Maastricht Treaty founded the European Union in place of the EEC, further integrating the member countries by establishing common European citizenship. Originally founded by twelve nations, it has since increased to 27. The European Parliament represents each member proportionally to its population and carries out legislation.

Brexit was the 2020 exit of the United Kingdom from the European Union. A referendum was held in 2016, and 51 percent of citizens voted to leave. This close vote remains highly controversial.

Where does tension over immigration stem from? How has the government responded?

Although Britain has pursued a policy to limit immigration since landmark legislation in the 60s, it has been a country of net immigration since 1994. In the 1980s, conflicts across the world also increased asylum seekers to the UK.

As globalization has accelerated in recent decades, anti-immigration sentiment has followed. In 2023, a survey conducted by the Migration Observatory found that 52% of Britons believed that immigration should be reduced by a little or a lot.  From 1994 to 2000, immigration was a top concern for less than 5 percent of the population. It then steadily increased in saliency and peaked at 56% in September 2015 during the Brexit era before dropping again. However, salience has again risen since 2022. It reached 38% in October 2024, becoming the top issue for the first time since 2016.

Economic Concerns

The Leave Vote in the Brexit referendum was primarily driven by economic concerns and the right to free movement within the EU. Both before and after, the consistent argument related to immigration is increased job competition. In polls, British citizens are most opposed to unskilled workers regardless of their origin. When several Eastern European countries joined the EU in 2004, many inhabitants were attracted to low-wage jobs in the UK, especially Polish nationals. Other economic crises, such as the 2008 recession and the COVID-19 pandemic, have strained the economy. Today, the UK suffers from staffing shortages and backlogs in the publicly-funded National Health Service, and an inflexible benefits system for those out of work. All of these factors have led people to scapegoat immigrants for putting pressure on the welfare system and claiming too many benefits.

Following its withdrawal from the EU, a points-based system was introduced to limit the immigration of low-skilled workers. This remains in place today. The Skilled Worker visa requires a job offer that meets the relevant minimum salary threshold and an English language proficiency level of B1. In contrast, the Student visa requires the applicant to have a confirmed course offer, be proficient in English, and have sufficient funds to support themselves and cover the course fees. PM Rishi Sunak’s Conservative government raised the requirements in 2024, implementing a higher salary threshold.

Asylum Seekers

Britain’s policy on asylum has also failed to satisfy, as asylum seekers have steadily increased for decades. Due to Brexit, the UK no longer has access to its asylum-sharing system. With no clear legal routes to enter the UK, people have turned to illegal ones because they cannot make an asylum claim until they leave their home country. A recent issue has been “small boats”, which carry people across the English Channel to the UK. In 2018, seven people were recorded completing the crossing. Levels reached a record 46,000 in 2022 before dropping for a few years. Today, crises such as civil wars have caused the numbers to mount again.

What has been the UK’s response to this illegal immigration? The Illegal Migration Act of 2023, under PM Rishi Sunak’s Conservative government, clamped down hard to obstruct people who arrive outside of immigration control. It made protection claims and certain human rights claims inadmissible, and “protections and entitlements to assistance and support which are available to victims of modern slavery or human trafficking” unapplicable to people who are subject to removal under the Act. This Act was decried by many humanitarians because there was no safe legal route for asylum seekers to enter the UK. The act was lifted when a Labour government came to power again in 2024.

The contention over migration has allowed the rise of a right-wing populist group, Reform UK. Initially founded in 2018 as the Brexit Party, it has since shifted its main focus to migration and attracted voters across the political spectrum. Led by Member of Parliament (MP) Nigel Farage, the party has made bold promises should it come to power.

The following statement is found on its official website:

“Our country is worse off, both financially and culturally. The economy is being wrecked by record high taxes, record high national debt, wasteful government spending and nanny state regulations. Record mass immigration has damaged our country. The small boats crisis threatens our security. Multiculturalism has imported separate communities that reject our way of life. Divisive, ‘woke’ ideology has captured our public institutions. Transgender indoctrination is causing irreversible harm to children.”

Among the party’s promises on migration are freezing non-essential immigration, removing illegal migrants, deporting anyone who attempts to enter on small boats, and banning those people from entering the UK for life. Reform UK has also expressed interest in leaving the European Convention on Human Rights, a 1953 treaty which contains a specific article that bans inhumane treatment, which has limited the government’s ability to remove migrants.

Reform UK has quickly gained power since its inception, reflecting the growing discontent among British citizens. The 2024 General UK election saw a huge swing in voters, as the reigning majority Conservative Party lost 20 percent of its seats, whereas Reform UK came in third with 14.3 percent of the vote. Most of its supporters are from constituencies that voted Leave in the 2016 Brexit Referendum. Its rise is part of a broader trend of successful right-wing populism across Western democracies, other examples being US President Donald Trump and Prime Minister Viktor Orbán. Those leaders and their parties emphasize nationalist, anti-immigration stances and use non-democratic means to implement policy. Based on its statements thus far, Reform UK seems to foresee a similar path.

Cultural Concerns

Cultural opposition to immigration is also mounting. Four in ten Britons believe a decline in the white share of the population is harmful for society. Various events besides the small boats crisis have exacerbated tensions, such as the 7 July 2005 London bombings. This terrorist attack, which resulted in fifty-two deaths and over 700 injuries, was perpetrated by four Islamist suicide bombers, three of whom were British-born and of Pakistani descent. Islamophobia and hate crime rates soared and are still felt today. High crime rates are often attributed to immigrants, and protests are often organized following crimes immigrants commit, although non-citizens are less likely to be convicted for violent offenses.

Misrepresentation of the Issue

In 2025, a report found that 57 percent of British citizens believed immigration should be reduced. However, the same report found that only 14 percent of those surveyed were aware that net migration fell from 2023 to 2024. When presented with the numbers, 1 in 5 people refused to believe that they were true.

What accounts for the discrepancy between people’s perceptions and the true numbers? It’s the image that news outlets, social media, and, above all, politicians paint for citizens, especially when it comes to asylum seekers. Especially as Reform UK gains popularity, politicians are pressured to make large promises about how they plan to limit immigration, even while there are gaps in the statistics. Immigrants are often blamed for crime, putting pressure on welfare services, and erasing British culture by failing to integrate. Asylum seekers especially cause resentment, and in recent years, their housing in hotels has become the center of debates.

When asylum dispersal was implemented in the 1990s, asylum seekers no longer chose where they would live. While their application was being reviewed, they would stay in contingency accommodations, including hotels, for a few weeks. However, the 2020s have seen longer hotel stays as the system is backlogged with applications. The key point is that asylum seekers do not choose to live here: the government does.

This ties into another issue: the focus on London. Unlike most areas, the capital has not declined in its use of hotel accommodations for asylum seekers. At the start of 2025, 60 percent of asylum seekers in London were housed in hotels. In addition, the majority of immigrants settle in the capital, and as of 2021, they made up 40 percent of London’s population.

When people reflect on the immigration issue, most imagine news coverage of protests outside these hotels. False headlines about these immigrants receiving free iPhones, private health care, and £175 per week have added to that image. In reality, asylum seekers typically receive £49.18 per person in their household, or £9.95 if their accommodation provides meals.  These benefits are significantly less than those to which British nationals are entitled. These false claims have not only been propagated by extremist politicians: for example, former Prime Minister Rishi Sunak incorrectly claimed that illegal migrants can get bank accounts.

Economic issues are also conflated with immigration due to the inevitable impacts of globalization. Italo Colantone and Piero Stanig, professors at Boccanio University, looked for patterns in the 2016 Brexit referendum. They found that Leave votes were “systematically higher in regions more affected by the surge in Chinese imports over the last three decades” and that there was “...no evidence that the presence or influx of immigrants correlates with a region’s support for Brexit.” Unable to mitigate the negative impacts of  globalization on manufacturing, politicians have convinced people that immigrants are the reason for their woes.

Arguments in Favor of Immigration, and What Are The Real Issues?

Some of the primary arguments against immigration are contradicted by the numbers. The majority of migrants work in the health and care sector, meaning they may be part of the solution to the struggling NHS system. The UK prioritizes recruiting people for these professions so much that, separate from the general Skilled Worker visa, it offers a Health and Care visa that “allows medical professionals to come to or stay in the UK to do an eligible job with the NHS, an NHS supplier or in adult social care.” From October 2024 to March 2025, a third of skilled worker visa grants were given to those in the health and care sector. The need for workers is further exacerbated by the UK’s aging population. The Office for National Statistics reports that from 1972 to 2022, the portion of inhabitants aged 65 or older rose from 13 to 19 percent of the population, and is projected to keep rising. It is predicted that the number of deaths will exceed the number of births each year by the mid-2030s, at which point the population will only continue to grow through migration. Migrants will play a significant role in mitigating the pressures this puts on the care sector and filling the gaps left by those who are leaving the workforce.

The United Kingdom officially departed from the EU in 2020, yet its impacts continue to echo today. In a 2025 survey by YouGov, 72 percent of respondents believed the UK was heading in the wrong direction. Among those respondents, the most cited reason for this was UK immigration policy (48 percent).

The Future

On 13 September 2025, 110,000 Britons from across the nation gathered to march through the streets of London. Galvanized by far-right nationalist activist Tommy Robinson, and carrying the Union Jack, they called for greater control over migrants. The protestors covered three-quarters of a mile and featured speakers including Elon Musk and French far-right politician Éric Zemmour. Although some protestors expressed anti-Islamic and racist views, the march was peaceful on the whole and included more than just the far right. As one man told the Guardian, “We are not racist like the media and government want to label us. We are all concerned about how broken our country is.”

In May 2025, the current Labour government under Keir Starmer published a policy paper titled “Restoring control over the immigration system,” also known as the Immigration White Paper. Prime Minister Starmer’s foreword summarized: 

“At its heart is a simple message of fairness. Migration is part of Britain’s national story and an essential element of a strong economy. But if people want to come to Britain to start a new life, they must contribute, learn our language and integrate. And if employers want to bring workers from overseas, then they must also invest in the skills of workers already in Britain.”

Among the proposed reforms are shortening the list of jobs that qualify for a Skilled Worker visa, strictening English language rules, increasing the qualifying period for ILR from five to ten years, and making it easier for migrants to enter on visas for highly skilled professions.

Since taking power in July 2024, PM Starmer has also advocated for “reset” in relations with the EU. Agreements have included reducing import costs through reduced border checks, a youth mobility agreement, and protecting fishing rights. A potential deal on reestablishing asylum-sharing is being developed with France, although it must work around significant legal constraints.

As the United Kingdom attempts to strike a balance between autonomy and the pressures of globalization, immigration may become a source of strength. However, for this to happen, cultural integration must be enforced so that the country can retain its identity. Leaders must be committed to effectively conveying the truth to British citizens who are disillusioned with the nation's trajectory.

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